Punctuation(-,--,',/)

Part 5: Using Hyphens and Dashes


1) Use a hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to make the word easier to read. For instance, if you were to leave the hyphen out of the word re-examine, it would be reexamine, where the double "e" could be confusing. Many words do not require a hyphen to separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo. Let a dictionary be your guide for when to use the hyphen after a prefix.
Here's an example of good hyphen usage:

Cara is his ex-girlfriend.

2) Use hyphens when creating compound words from several smaller words. If you've ever written about anything that's gold-plated, radar-equipped, or one-size-fits-all, you've used a hyphen in this way. To build a long, descriptive word out of two or more component words, use hyphens to separate the "pieces" from each other.

Here's an example of a hyphen used to build a compound word:

The up-to-date newspaper reporters were quick to jump on the latest scandal.

3) Use a hyphen when writing numbers out as words. Separate the two words of any number under one hundred with a hyphen. Be careful with spelling out numbers above one hundred — if the number is used as an adjective, it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated. (This is the one-hundredth episode). Otherwise, a hyphen should occur only if a number lower than 100 is embedded within a larger number, e.g., He lived to be one hundred twenty-one.

• Don't use "and" when writing numbers, as in "The amount is one hundred andeighty." This is a common error in the US and Canada, where the "and" is usually omitted. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world, however, the "and" can be included.

Here are two examples of hyphens being used in numbers below and above one hundred, respectively:

There are fifty-two playing cards in a deck.

The packaging advertised one thousand two hundred twenty-four firecrackers, but it contained only one thousand.

4) Use a dash when making a brief interruption within a statement. The dash ("--" or "—") is slightly longer than the hyphen and is used to convey a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification within a sentence. It can also be used to add a parenthetical statement for further clarification, but this should still be relevant to the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses. Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still flow naturally as if the dashed material were not there.

• To judge whether a dash is appropriate, try to remove the words between the dashes. If the sentence appears disjointed or does not make sense, you may need to revise it instead of using the dashes.
• There should be spaces before and after a dash in British English.
• Here are two examples of proper dash usage:

  An introductory clause is a brief phrase that comes — yes, you guessed it — at the beginning of a sentence.

  This is the end of our sentence — or so we thought.

5) Use a hyphen to split a word between two lines. Though this use is not as common today, the hyphen ("-") was once a common punctuation mark on typewriters, used when a long word had to be split between two lines. This system is still seen in some books, but the justification capacity of computer word processing programs has made this rarer.

Here's an example of a hyphen being used to split a word that's cut into two pieces by a line break:

No matter what he tried, he just couldn't get the novel's elec-
trifying surprise ending out of his head.

Part 6: Using Apostrophes 

1) Use the apostrophe together with the letter s to indicate possession. The apostrophe (" ' ") has a variety of uses for conveying the concept of possession. Be aware of the difference in using an apostrophe with singular or plural nouns. A singular noun will use the apostrophe before the "s" ('s), whereas the plural version of that noun will use the apostrophe after the "s" (s'). This use comes with several stipulations discussed below.

• Be mindful of nouns that are always considered to be plural, such as childrenand people. Here you should use 's even though the nouns are plural.
• Also be aware of pronouns that are already possessive and do not require apostrophes, such as hers and its. (It's means it is or it has). Their is possessive without apostrophe or s, except as a predicate adjective, where it becomestheirs.
• Here is an example of an apostrophe used to show possession with a singular noun:

  The hamster's water tube needs to be refilled.

• Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a plural noun:

  In the pet store, the hamsters' bedding needed to be changed.

• Here is an example of an apostrophe used for showing possession with a plural noun that doesn't end with "s":

These children's test scores are the highest in the nation.

2) Use the apostrophe to combine two words to make a contraction.Contractions are shortened combinations of two words. For example, cannot becomescan't, "it is" becomes "it's", you are becomes you're, and "they have" becomes they've. In every contraction, the apostrophe replaces the letters that are omitted from one or both words.

• Be sure to use the possessive pronoun your and the contraction you'reappropriately. It is a common mistake to interchange them.

Here is an example of apostrophes used for a contraction of it is and a singular noun with possession, while correctly being omitted for possessive pronouns (hers, theirs, its):

Friends of hers explained that it's her idea, not theirs, to refill the hamster's water tube and change its bedding.

3) Use a single quotation mark within a regular quotation to indicate a quotation within a quotation. Single quotation marks, which look almost identical to apostrophes, are used to separate quotations from other quotations which surround them. Use these carefully: always make sure every quotation mark used to start a quote is paired with a corresponding one at the end of the quote.Here is an example of a quote-within-a-quote:

Ali said, "Anna told me, 'I wasn't sure if you wanted to come!'"

4) Don't use an apostrophe with an s to make a singular noun into a plural noun. This is a very common mistake. Remember that apostrophes are not used to show the simple pluralization of a noun.Here are examples of correct and incorrect apostrophe usage:

CORRECT - apple → apples

INCORRECT - apple → apple's

Part 7: Using Slashes 

1) Use the slash to separate and from or, when appropriate. Slashes ( " / " ) in phrases like and/or suggest that the options described are not mutually exclusive.

Here is an example of good "and/or" usage:

To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate.

2) Use the slash when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Slashes are especially useful when it is impractical to recreate the original formatting of a poem or song. When using slashes in this way, be sure to include spaces before and after the slashes.

• Here is an example of slashes used to mark line breaks in a song:

  Row, row, row your boat / Gently down the stream. / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / Life is but a dream.

3) Also use the slash to replace the word and when joining two nouns. By replacing and with a slash, you suggest that there is equal importance in both options listed. Use these replacements in moderation to place greater emphasis whereand may not do so, as well as to avoid confusing the reader. You can also do the same for or, as in his/her. However, you should not use the slash to separate independent clauses.

• Here are examples of how to use and how not to use a slash in this way:

  CORRECT:
  "The student and part-time employee has very little free time." →
  "The student/part-time employee has very little free time."

  INCORRECT:
  "Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" →
  "Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall?"